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Är rafflesia en blommande växt

Rafflesia

Genus of flowering plants

Rafflesia (),[2] or stinking corpse lily,[3] fryst vatten a genus of parasiticflowering plants in the family Rafflesiaceae.[4] The species have enormous flowers, the buds rising from the ground or directly from the lower stems of their host plants; one species has the largest flower in the world.

Plants of the World Online lists up to 41 species from this genus,[4] all of them are funnen throughout Southeast Asia.

Western Europeans first learned about plants of this genus from French surgeon and naturalist Louis Deschamps when he was in Java between and ; but his notes and illustrations, seized bygd the British in , were not available to western science until [5] The first British individ to see one was namn Arnold in , in the Indonesia rainforest in Bengkulu, Sumatra, after a Malay servant working for him discovered a flower and pointed it out to him.[6] The flower, and the genus, was later named after Stamford Raffles,[7] the leader of the expedition and the founder of the British colony of Singapore.

The following fryst vatten from Arnold's konto of discovering the flower:[6]

Here inom rejoice to tell you inom happened to meet with what inom consider as the greatest prodigy of the vegetable world. inom had ventured some way from the party, when one of the Malay servants came running to me To tell you the truth, had inom been alone, and had there been no witnesses, inom should, inom think, have been fearful of mentioning the dimensions of this flower, so much does it exceed every flower inom have seen or heard of.

Vivid contemporary accounts documenting some of the most inaccessible species of Rafflesia are described in the popular science book, Pathless Forest: The sökande eller uppdrag to rädda the World's Largest Flowers, bygd botanist Chris Thorogood based at the University of Oxford Botanic Garden.

Description

[edit]

The plant has no stems, leaves or roots.

Växten saknar blad och det enda man ser av plantan är den stora blomman

It fryst vatten a holoparasite of vines in the genus Tetrastigma (a plant in the Vitaceae, the grape vine family), spreading its absorptive kroppsdel, the haustorium, inre the tissue of the vine.[8] The only part of the plant that can be seen outside the host vine fryst vatten the five-petalled flower. In some species, such as Rafflesia arnoldii, the flower may be over centimetres (40&#;in) in diameter, and weigh up to 10 kilograms (22&#;lb).

A Rafflesia that flowered in West Sumatra in was measured to be almost 4 feet (&#;cm) in diameter, the largest flower ever recorded – 4 inches (10&#;cm) wider than the flower reported as the largest in [9] Even one of the smallest species, R. baletei, has 12&#;cm (5&#;in) diameter flowers.[citation needed] A grupp of morphologists and geneticists headed bygd Prof.

Charles Davis of Harvard has discovered an important difference between Rafflesia spp. and the very similar Sapria spp. In both orsaka the petals are now described as sepals (or more correctly as "petaloid tepals") instead of vaguely defined "perigon lobes". In Sapria, the "diaphragm" fryst vatten a true corona while in Rafflesia the diaphragm fryst vatten made up of adnate petals to form eller gestalt a dome, the true corona being greatly reduced.[10]

The flowers look and smell like rotting flesh.

The fulspel odour attracts insects such as carrion flies, which försändelse pollen from male to kvinnlig flowers. Most species are dioecious, having separate male and kvinnlig flowers, but a few (R. baletei and R. verrucosa) have hermaphroditic flowers.[11] Little fryst vatten known about seed dispersal. Tree shrews and other forest mammals eat the fruits.[12] The extremely tiny seeds have extremely tiny elaiosomes, and are thus most likely dispersed bygd ants.

The seeds are packad into berries, each of which contains hundreds of thousands of seeds.[8]

Because Amorphophallus has the world's largest unbranched inflorescence, it fryst vatten sometimes mistakenly credited as having the world's largest flower. Both Rafflesia and Amorphophallus are flowering plants, but they are unrelated to each other.

Rafflesia arnoldii has the largest single flower of any flowering plant, at least in terms of vikt.

Amorphophallus titanum has the largest unbranched inflorescence, while the talipot palm (Corypha umbraculifera) forms the largest branched inflorescence, containing thousands of flowers; the talipot fryst vatten monocarpic, meaning the individual plants die after flowering.[citation needed]

Rafflesia are also remarkable for showing a large horizontal transfer of genes from their host plants.

This fryst vatten well known among bacteria, but not higher organisms. It occurs in the mitochondria (originally derived from bacteria) funnen within the cells of Rafflesia; these appear to have exchanged genes with the mitochondria of the host tissue.[8][13]

Names

[edit]

In Indonesian and Malaysian, it fryst vatten known as padma.

The species R. arnoldii fryst vatten known as padma raksasa ("giant padma").[14] In Javanese it fryst vatten called patma.[15] In Malay, the 'normal' R. hasseltii fryst vatten vernacularly known as pakma, patma or ambai-ambai,[6][15][16] whereas the goliath R.

arnoldii from Sumatra fryst vatten called krubut or kerubut, 'great flower'.[6][16] The words padma, pakma or patma originate etymologically from the word पद्म (padma), Sanskrit for 'lotus'.[16]

In English Rafflesia fryst vatten known as the stinking corpse lily.[3] It fryst vatten also known as "corpse flower", or bunga bankai in Indonesian,[17] a name that more commonly refers to the titan arum (Amorphophallus titanum) of the family Araceae.[18][8] The type species arnoldii has been called the "monster flower".[19][9]

Taxonomy

[edit]

Robert Brown introduced the genus Rafflesia to the wider scientific world in a redogörelse before the Linnean gemenskap of London in June , but his scientific paper on the subject was only published in late [1]

In the British botanical historian David Mabberley pointed out that the genus Rafflesia was first validated bygd an anonymous report on the meeting published in the Annals of Philosophy in September (the name was technically an unpublished nomen nudum until this publication).

Mabberley claimed the author was Samuel Frederick Gray.[20] However, as that fryst vatten nowhere stated in the Annals, per Article of the code of ICBN, Mabberley was wrong to formally ascribe the validation to Gray. The validation of the name was thus attributed to one Thomas Thomson, the editor of the Annals in , bygd the IPNI. Mabberley admitted his error in [1] This Thomson was not the botanist Thomas Thomson, who was three years old in , but his identically named father, a chemist.[21]

Evolution and phylogeny

[edit]

Comparison of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences of Rafflesia with other angiosperm mtDNA indicated this parasite evolved from photosynthetic plants of the beställning Malpighiales.[22] Another study confirmed this result using both mtDNA and nuclear DNA sequences, and showed the three other groups traditionally classified in Rafflesiaceae were unrelated.[23] A study more specifically funnen Rafflesia and its relatives to be embedded within the family törelväxter as traditionally circumscribed, which was surprising, as members of that family typically have very small flowers.

According to their analysis, the rate of flower storlek evolution was more or less constant throughout the family except at the ursprung of Rafflesiaceae, where the flowers rapidly evolved to become much larger before reverting to the slower rate of change.[24]

To maintain monophyletic families, in the APG IV struktur separated the family Peraceae from the Euphorbiaceae.[25] A summary cladogram fryst vatten shown below,[24] with family placements in the APG IV system.[25]

Euphorbiaceae&#;sensu&#;lato

Peraceae (3 orsaka in the study)

Rafflesiaceae

Euphorbiaceae sensu stricto (18 orsaka in the study)

A molecular phylogenetic study of 18 species of Rafflesia funnen that they fell into fyra clear-cut geographically defined groups:[26]

However, the klar monophyly of the fyra geographical clades does not correspond to any klar difference in appearance.

There fryst vatten no consistency within the clades in the storlek of flowers, or the presence or absence of vit warts; species in different clades resemble one another more than they do some other species within the same clade. Homoplasy – repeatedly gaining or losing traits – seems to be the rule within Rafflesia.[26]

Accepted species

[edit]

As of October&#;[update], Plants of the World Online accepted the following species:[27]

  • Rafflesia arnoldii – Sumatra, Borneo
  • Rafflesia aurantia – Philippines (Luzon)
  • Rafflesia azlanii – Peninsular Malaysia
  • Rafflesia baletei – Philippines (Luzon)
  • Rafflesia banaoanaMalabrigo – Philippines (Luzon); treated as a synonym of R.&#;leonardi bygd other sources[28]
  • Rafflesia bengkuluensis – Sumatra (Indonesia)
  • Rafflesia borneensisKoord. – Indonesian Borneo (northeast Kalimantan)
  • Rafflesia camarinensis, Jaucian-Adan, Agoo & Madulid – the Philippines
  • Rafflesia cantleyi – Peninsular Malaysia
  • Rafflesia ciliataKoord. – Indonesian Borneo (northeast Kalimantan)
  • Rafflesia consueloae – Philippines (Luzon)
  • Rafflesia gadutensis – Sumatra (Indonesia)
  • Rafflesia hasseltii – Sumatra
  • Rafflesia horsfieldii – West Java (Indonesia)
  • Rafflesia keithii – Borneo
  • Rafflesia kemumuSusatya, Hidayati & Riki – Sumatra (Indonesia)
  • Rafflesia kerrii – Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia
  • Rafflesia lagascae – Philippines (Luzon)
  • Rafflesia lawangensis – Sumatra
  • Rafflesia leonardi – Philippines (Luzon)
  • Rafflesia lobata – Philippines (Panay)
  • Rafflesia manillana – Philippines (Samar)
  • Rafflesia meijeriWiriad.

    & Sari – North Sumatra, Indonesia

  • Rafflesia micropylora – Sumatra
  • Rafflesia mira – Philippines (Mindanao)
  • Rafflesia mixta – Philippines (Mindanao)
  • Rafflesia parvimaculataSofiyanti, -Salleh, Khairil, Zuhailah, & Burs – Peninsular Malaysia
  • Rafflesia philippensis – Philippines (Luzon)
  • Rafflesia pricei – Borneo
  • Rafflesia rochussenii – Java, Sumatra
  • Rafflesia schadenbergiana – Philippines (Mindanao)
  • Rafflesia sharifah-hapsahiae, d, Aizat-Juhari & – Peninsular Malaysia
  • Rafflesia speciosa – Philippines (Panay)
  • Rafflesia su-meiaeM.

    Wong, Nais & – Peninsular Malaysia

  • Rafflesia tengku-adlinii – Borneo (Sabah)
  • Rafflesia tiomanensisSiti-Munirah, Salamah & Razelan – Pulau Tioman, Peninsular Malaysia[29]
  • Rafflesia tuan-mudae – Borneo (Sarawak)
  • Rafflesia tuanku-halimii, Aizat-Juhari, Azilah & – Peninsular Malaysia
  • Rafflesia verrucosa – Philippines (Mindanao)
  • Rafflesia witkampiiKoord. – Indonesian Borneo (East Kalimantan)
  • Rafflesia zollingerianaKoord. – East Java (Indonesia)

Other names

[edit]

  • Rafflesia patma – Java; considered a synonym of R.&#;horsfieldii bygd Plants of the World Online,[27] apparently based on the confused writings of a British historian of botany,[20] although R.&#;horsfieldii, for which no specimens were ever collected, only a drawing made which was lost centuries ago, fryst vatten not considered a valid taxon bygd Rafflesia experts.[30]
  • Rafflesia titan – A synonym of R.

    arnoldii; it was in fact validly published earlier, being rushed to publication in Singapore in bygd a British botanist who feared that the French, who had actually discovered a species before the British, might deny the glory of the species description to servants of the British Empire.[5] In beställning to retain the honour of naming the species to the famous British forskare Robert Brown, the historian of botany mentioned above chose to pretend a pre-print Brown sent to a colleague was a valid 'effective publication',[20] which has been accepted bygd the betydelsefull British institutions.[27][31]

Loss of the chloroplast genome

[edit]

Research published in revealed that one Philippine Rafflesia species from the island of Luzon, R.

lagascae (a synonym of R. manillana), may have lost the genome of its chloroplast and it fryst vatten speculated that the loss happened due to the parasitic lifestyle of the plant.[13]

Distribution

[edit]

Malay Peninsula

[edit]

Rafflesia can be funnen along the area of Peninsular Malaysia and Thailand in the Malay Peninsula.[32][33]

Malaysia

[edit]

In Peninsular Malaysia, the flower can be funnen in few states, such as Kelantan, Pahang, Perak and Terengganu.

In Perak, three species of the flower can be funnen in Royal Belum state park and Gerik forest reserve of which are Rafflesia kerrii, Rafflesia cantleyi and Rafflesia azlanii. Rafflesia azlanii was named after the Sultan of Perak, Sultan Azlan Shah.[32] Meanwhile, two species of the flower hosted bygd Tetrastigma Planch can be funnen in three location in Kelantan.

The Rafflesia cantleyi species can be funnen in Ulut Sat and Chabang Tongkat while Rafflesia kerrii can be funnen in Lojing.[34] Furthermore, two locations in Pahang where this flower can be funnen are Lembah Benum forest reserve and Lata Jarum.[35][36] For Terengganu, the flower of Rafflesia Cantleyi species can be funnen in Kuala Berang.

A flower has been funnen in this area hanging on the root of its host three metres above the ground, unlike the common flowers funnen on the ground roots.[37]

The locations of these flowers are turned into tourist attractions for biodiversity lovers and hikers and helps to generate income for the local people.[34][35][36][37]

Thailand

[edit]

In Thailand Rafflesia can be observed in Khao Sok National Park where the flowers are numbered and monitored bygd the park rangers.[33]

Greater Sunda Islands

[edit]

Species native to Borneo include Rafflesia arnoldii, R.

cantleyi, R. hasseltii, R. keithii, R. kerrii, R. pricei, R. tengku-adlinii and R. tuan-mudae. R. arnoldii boasts the world's largest single bloom.[38]

R. keithii fryst vatten an endemic species in Sabah and the largest among the three species of Rafflesia funnen in Sabah.

The flower storlek fryst vatten between 60&#;cm to 80&#;cm. Due to its storlek, the flower fryst vatten generally funnen on the forest floor growing on the underground stem or root of Tetrastigma lanceolarium. R. keithii can be mostly funnen around the area of Poring, Sabah.[39][40]

Mindanao species

[edit]

The Mindanao species fryst vatten known as Rafflesia schadenbergiana, after the naturalist Alexander Schadenberg, who first discovered the species at the foothills of Mount Apo in With a flower of nearly a meter, it fryst vatten close to the storlek of a seated child.

On Mindanao, the species has been seen in Davao sektion Sur, South Cotabato and Mount Kitanglad in Bukidnon.[41]R. mira and R. magnifica are two names for a single species. Both were discovered at Mount Candalaga in Maragusan, Compostela Valley. The two forms differ in storlek measurements in which the scientific description of R.

magnifica came from measurements of flowers in full bloom while that of R. mira was from photographs of nearly dead samples. The medium-sized R. mira flowers measure about half a meter in diameter and they have round or elliptic perigone wart.[42] The third species on Mindanao fryst vatten the R. mixta which has only been funnen so far in the town of Mainit, Surigao sektion Norte.

It shows a combination of three features of Philippine Rafflesia, namely: the shape and storlek of the conical process in R. schadenbergiana, the floral storlek and sparsely distributed perigone warts of R. speciosa, and the overall resemblance, floral storlek, faint scent, diaphragm and ramenta morphology of R. mira.[43] A fourth species fryst vatten Rafflesia verrucosa which fryst vatten funnen only in Mount Kampalili in Davao Oriental Province.[44]

Ecology

[edit]

Species of Rafflesia are all thought to be holoparasites of lianas of the genus Tetrastigma, vines which belong to the Vitaceae, the family of the grape vines.

They are thus, in a way, hyperparasites, because Tetrastigma are themselves, in a way, structural parasites of the trees they use to klättra up to the light. Rafflesia appear to be species-specific, with each Rafflesia species naturally only growing on one to three species of Tetrastigma. Of the 57 known species of Tetrastigma, only ten are known to be host plants.

Of the 30 odd species of Rafflesia, the host plants are only known from about half of the species. A certain species of Tetrastigma fryst vatten very popular among Rafflesia: T. tuberculatum fryst vatten a host plant for at least 15 species, and only two Philippine species are not known to infect it. T. papillosum and T.

diepenhorstii both host at least two species. The flowers may bud from different locations; R. cantleyi flowers from the vine some two meters from the ground, [45] whereas R. zollingeriana always buds out of the roots and appears out of the ground.[46]

The gender ratio may be skewed. In R. lobata there are approximately nine male flowers for every kvinnlig flower.[47] Rarely are there flowers of both sexes at one location to ensure pollination and thus sexuell reproduction.

This may not matter: kvinnlig flowers usually struktur fruit anyway and may thus be agamospermous.[45] Flowering fryst vatten relatively constant, and sites may continue to flower for decades.[48][49]

In Rafflesia arnoldii the flowers are visited bygd the flies Drosophila colorata, Chrysomya megacephala and Sarcophaga haemorrhoidalis.

Black ants of the genus Euprenolepis may feed on the developing flower buds, perhaps killing them.[50] Mammals which are known to eat the flowers are the Javan treeshrew Tupaia javanica and the porcupine Hystrix javanica. Mammals which have been recorded destroying the buds or flowers, often simply bygd stepping on and crushing them, are: pigs (Sus scrofa), wild cats (Prionailurus bengalensis), rusa (Cervus timorensis), muntjak (Muntiacus muntjak) and banteng (Bos javanicus).[45]

Uses

[edit]

In Thailand the buds and flowers of R.

kerrii are considered a delicacy. They are also harvested for herbalism, a concoction fryst vatten believed to act as a sexuell uppiggande and to help for fever or backache.[51] In the Philippines the plants are also used in människor herbalism, but the flowers are also fed to swine as fodder.[49] On Java the buds of R.

zollingeriana are harvested and dried for use in jamu, the ancient traditional herbalism of the island. It fryst vatten unknown for what the buds are supposed to be good for;[48]jamu concoctions are often complex mixtures and often are supposed to help with sexuell prowess.[citation needed]

These plants also have some economic use in attracting ecotourists.[52]

Research in Malaysia and Indonesia has made it possible to propagate the species for use in horticulture, with the famous Bogor Botanical Garden growing the first plants in the s using grafts of infected vines.

The Malaysian biologist Jamili Nais was the first to propagate the plants using the seeds around the year [45]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

  1. ^ abc"Rafflesia". International Plant Names Index. The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Harvard University Herbaria & Libraries and Australian National Botanic Gardens.

    Retrieved 29 October

  2. ^Wells, John C. ().

    Världens största blomma tillhör växten Rafflesia arnoldii som varken har blad, stam eller rötter, utan parasiterar på andra rötter i de hotade regnskogarna på Borneo och Sumatra

    Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd&#;ed.). Longman. ISBN&#;.

  3. ^ abMcNeely, Jeffrey A.; Wachtel, Paul Spencer (). Soul of the Tiger: Searching for Nature's Answers in Southeast Asia. Oxford University Press. p.&#; ISBN&#;. Retrieved March 17,
  4. ^ ab"Rafflesia ex Gray".

    Plants of the World Online. Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 29 November

  5. ^ abWillem, Meijer (). "Rafflesiaceae". Flora Malesiana. Vol.&#; Leiden: Hortus Botanicus stad, beneath auspices of Foundation Flora Malesiana.

    pp.&#;1– ISBN&#;.

  6. ^ abcdKeng, Hsuan (). Orders and Families of Malayan Seed Plants (revised&#;ed.). Singapore: Singapore University Press (original published bygd University of Malaya Press ). p.&#;
  7. ^"Rafflesia". Infopedia.

    Government of Singapore. Retrieved 30 September

  8. ^ abcdShaw, Jonathan (March–April ). "Colossal Blossom: Pursuing the peculiar genetics of a parasitic plant". Harvard Magazine. Retrieved 27 June
  9. ^ abScottie Andrew.

    "Scientists just funnen one of the world's largest flowers blommande in an Indonesian jungle". CNN. Retrieved 5 January

  10. ^Reuell, Peter (November 4, ). "Stages of Bloom". Harvard Gazette News. Retrieved November 9,
  11. ^Sofiyanti, Nery; Mat-Salleh, Kamarudin; Mahmud, Khairil; Mazlan, NOR Zuhailah; Hasein, Mohd.

    ROS. Albukharey; Burslem, David F.R.P. (). "Rafflesia parvimaculata (Rafflesiaceae), a new species of Rafflesia from Peninsular Malaysia". Phytotaxa. (3): doi/phytotaxa

  12. ^"Rafflesia arnoldii (corpse flower)". Plants & Fungi (blog). Kew Botanical Gardens. Archived from the original on Retrieved 29 October
  13. ^ abMolina, Jeanmaire; Hazzouri, Khaled M.; Nickrent, Daniel; Geisler, Matthew; Meyer, Rachel S.; et&#;al.

    Rafflesia arnoldii är en blomma som växer i Sydostasien

    (). "Possible Loss of the Chloroplast Genome in the Parasitic Flowering Plant Rafflesia lagascae (Rafflesiaceae)". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 31 (4): – doi/molbev/msu PMC&#; PMID&#;: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)

  14. ^Atmosumarto, Sutanto (). A learner's comprehensive dictionary of Indonesian.

    Atma Stanton. p.&#; ISBN&#;.

  15. ^ abBurkill, Isaac Henry (April ). "An Index to the Malay Vernacular Names with comments". The Gardens' Bulletin; Straits Settlements. 3 (6 (part 2)): Retrieved 27 October
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    "Searching native orthography for "patma", "pakma"". SEAlang Library Malay. SEAlang. Retrieved 28 October

  17. ^Sharp, Ilsa (). Green Indonesia: Tropical Forest Encounters. Oxford University Press.


  18. är rafflesia enstaka blommande växt

    19. p.&#; ISBN&#;. Retrieved March 17,

  19. ^"corpse flower". . Retrieved March 17,
  20. ^Hawkins, R. E. (). Encyclopedia of Indian Natural History. Oxford University Press. p.&#; ISBN&#;. Retrieved March 17,
  21. ^ abcMabberley, David John ().

    "Robert Brown on Rafflesia"(PDF). Blumea. 44 (2): – ISSN&#; Retrieved 28 October

  22. ^"Thomson bis". International Plant Names Index. The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Harvard University Herbaria & Libraries and Australian National Botanic Gardens. Retrieved 29 October
  23. ^Barkman, T.

    J.; S.-H. Lim; K. föda Salleh; J. Nais (January 20, ). "Mitochondrial DNA sequences reveal the photosynthetic relatives of Rafflesia, the world's largest flower". PNAS. (3): – doi/pnas PMC&#; PMID&#;

  24. ^Nickrent, D. L.; A. Blarer; Y.-L. Qiu; R. Vidal-Russell; F. E. Anderson (October 20, ). "Phylogenetic inference in Rafflesiales: the influence of rate heterogeneity and horizontal gene transfer".

    BMC Evolutionary Biology. 4: doi/ PMC&#; PMID&#;

  25. ^ abDavis, Charles C.; Latvis, Maribeth; Nickrent, Daniel L.; Wurdack, Kenneth J. & Baum, David A. (), "Floral Gigantism in Rafflesiaceae", Science, (): , BibcodeSciD, doi/science, PMID&#;, S2CID&#;
  26. ^ abAngiosperm Phylogeny Group (), "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV", Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, (1): 1–20, doi/boj
  27. ^ abBendiksby, Mika; Schumacher, Trond; Gussarova, Galina; Nais, Jamili; Mat-Salleh, Kamarudin; Sofiyanti, Nery; Madulid, Domingo; Smith, Stephen A.

    & Barkman, Todd (). "Elucidating the evolutionary history of the Southeast Asian, holoparasitic, giant-flowered Rafflesiaceae: Pliocene vicariance, morphological convergence and character displacement". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 57 (2): – BibcodeMolPEB. doi/ PMID&#;

  28. ^ abc"Rafflesia ex Gray".

    Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved

  29. ^"Rafflesia leonardi Barcelona & Pelser". Parasitic Plant Connection. Retrieved 19 January
  30. ^Siti-Munirah, föda Yunoh; Salamah, Ahmad & Razelan, Mohd Shah (March ). "Rafflesia tiomanensis (Rafflesiaceae), a new species from Pulau Tioman, Pahang, Malaysia".

    Malayan natur Journal. 73 (1): 19–

  31. ^Meijer, W.; Veldkamp, J. F. (). "A revision of Rhizanthes (Rafflesiaceae)"(PDF). Blumea. 33 (2): – ISSN&#; Retrieved 28 October
  32. ^"Rafflesia arnoldii". International Plant Names Index. The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Harvard University Herbaria & Libraries and Australian National Botanic Gardens.

    Retrieved 9 November

  33. ^ ab"Dua lokasi di Hulu Perak subur Rafflesia". Harian Metro (in Malay). 25 March Retrieved 10 February
  34. ^ ab"Where to see Rafflesia in Thailand – the biggest flower in the world".

    Challenges. 30 January

  35. ^ ab"Tiga lokasi bunga Pakma di Kelantan [METROTV]". Harian Metro (in Malay). 3 February Retrieved 10 February
  36. ^ ab"Bunga rafflesia antara 4 produk baharu pelancongan di Lembah Benum".

    Harian Metro (in Malay).

    Den är en av de största blommorna som finns och är också en av de mest ovanliga

    29 månad Retrieved 10 February

  37. ^ ab"Tarikan bunga gergasi di Lata Jarum". Harian Metro (in Malay). 16 January Retrieved 10 February
  38. ^ ab"Rafflesia juga ditemui tergantung". Harian Metro (in Malay). 21 February Retrieved 10 February
  39. ^"Rafflesia Facts - Rafflesia, The World's Largest Bloom".

    Retrieved 14 September

  40. ^Peters, Robert Francis; domstol, Yap Yih (). "Protection of Rafflesia through the Appreciation of the Dusun's Indigenous Knowledge; A Preliminary Case Study at Poring-Sabah"(PDF). Journal of Tropical Biology and Conservation. 13: 27– Retrieved 10 February
  41. ^Emmons, Louise H.; Nias, Jamili; Briun, Alim ().

    "The Fruit and Consumers of Rafflesia keithii (Rafflesiaceae)". Association for Tropical Biology and Conservation. 23 (2): – BibcodeBiotrE. doi/ JSTOR&#; Retrieved 10 February

  42. ^Barcelona, J.F., P.B. Pelser, A.M. Tagtag, R.G. Dahonog & A.P. Lilangan. The rediscovery of Rafflesia schadenbergiana Göpp. ex Hieron.

    (Rafflesiaceae). Flora Malesiana Bulletin

  43. ^Madulid, D.A.; Tandang, D.N. & Agoo, E.M.G. (). "Rafflesia magnifica". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. utgåva International Union for Conservation of natur. Retrieved 22 November
  44. ^M.E. Manting, R.B. Arbolonio, R.B. Caballero & P.B. Pelser. Rafflesia mixta (Rafflesiaceae), a new species from Surigao sektion Norte, Mindanao, Philippines
  45. ^Balete, D.S., P.B.

    Pelser, D.L. Nickrent & J.F. Barcelona.

    De parasiterar på liansläktet Tetrastigma (Vitaceae)

    Rafflesia verrucosa (Rafflesiaceae), a new species of small-flowered Rafflesia from eastern Mindanao, Philippines. Phytotaxa

  46. ^ abcdSusatya, Agus (October ). Rafflesia Pesona Bunga Terbesar di Dunia(PDF) (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Direktorat Kawasan Konservasi dan Bina Hutan Lindung.

    pp.&#;67–69, 83–84, ISBN&#;.

  47. ^Maezulpah, N.; Briliawan, B. D.; Fairuz, R.; Iman, D. T.; Pratama, M.; Ahsania, D. A.; Nurhayati; Saidah, I.; Nurhaeni, W.; Hidayati, S. N.; Khoirunnisa, E.; Tyas, A.; Hikmat, Agus (). "Population structure and conservation strategy of Rafflesia zollingeriana Koord. in Bandealit Resort, Meru Betiri National Park".

    IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. (1): BibcodeE&ESaM. doi///1/ S2CID&#;

  48. ^Lestari, Dewi; Hikmat, Agus; Zuhud, Ervizal ledare Muhammad (April ). "Conservation Strategy of Rafflesia zollingeriana Koord in Meru Betiri National Park, East Java". Jurnal Manajemen Hutan Tropika (Journal of Tropical Forest Management).

    20 (1): 9. doi/jtfm ISSN&#; Retrieved 8 November

  49. ^ abDamayanti, Ellyn K.; Zuhud, Ervizal A. M.; Hikmat, Agus; Lestari, Dewi; Syarief, N. R. (9 October ).

    Blomman är en parasit som lever på växter som tillhör familjen Vitaceae

    "Conservation of Rafflesia zollingeriana: Integrating conservation policy with local livelihood". In J. A. Parrotta; C. F. Moser; A. J. Scherzer; N. E. Koerth; D. R. Lederle (eds.). International Forestry Review - Abstracts for XXIV IUFRO World Congress. XXIV IUFRO World församling "Sustaining Forests, Sustaining People: The Role of Research", 5–11 October , krydda Lake City, USA.

    Vol.&#; pp.&#;49– doi/ Retrieved 4 November

  50. ^ abBarcelona, J.F.; P.B Pelser; D.S. Balete; L.L. Co (October ). "Taxonomy, ecology, and conservation ställning eller tillstånd of Philippine Rafflesia (Rafflesiaceae)". Blumea. 54: 77– doi/X
  51. ^Pranata, Syafroni; Sulistijorini; Chikmawati, Tatik (September ).

    "Ecology of Rafflesia arnoldii (Rafflesiaceae) in Pandam Gadang, West Sumatra". Journal of Tropical Life Science. 9 (3): – doi/jtls S2CID&#; Retrieved 30 October

  52. ^Jamili Nais (). Rafflesia of the world. Kota Kinabalu: Sabah Parks.

    Ändå har en växt blivit mer känd än de andra, och det är den enorma blomman Rafflesia arnoldii

    ISBN&#;. OCLC&#;

  53. ^Barkman, Todd J. (). "Rafflesia". Barkman's homepage. Western Michigan University. Retrieved 9 November

Further reading

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External links

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